32
Ge
Germanium
Germanium
Germanium (Ge), element 32, is a metalloid semiconductor critical for fiber optics, infrared thermal imaging, and high-efficiency space solar cells—with supply dominated by byproduct recovery from zinc refining and coal ash.
Last reviewed: 2026-01-22
Bottom Line
Germanium (Ge) is a metalloid semiconductor with atomic number 32, characterized by infrared transparency (2–16 μm) and semiconductor behavior. Primary resource concentrations: 41% of global reserves held by China, 10% by Russia; 99%+ sourced as byproduct from zinc/copper/lead refining or coal ash.
Net import reliance (U.S.)
100%
United States
China refining capacity share
80–85%
Global
Fiber optics demand share
34.76%
Global (largest segment)
Global production
~220 tonnes/year
Global
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▸Executive Brief
1 min read
Executive Brief
Key Facts
- ▪Germanium (Ge) is a metalloid semiconductor with atomic number 32, characterized by infrared transparency (2–16 μm) and semiconductor behavior.
- ▪Primary resource concentrations: 41% of global reserves held by China, 10% by Russia; 99%+ sourced as byproduct from zinc/copper/lead refining or coal ash.
- ▪Global production ~220 tonnes/year (2024), with theoretical capacity ~1,250 tonnes/year; China controls ~60% of refined output and 80–85% of refining capacity.
- ▪Fiber optics demand: 34.76% (fastest-growing at 5.61% CAGR); semiconductors/optoelectronics: 25%; infrared optics: 18%; photovoltaics: 8–12%.
- ▪China export licensing requirement since August 2023 (45-day approval); US export ban Dec 2024–Nov 2025; prices doubled from ~$1,350 to ~$2,850/kg.
- ▪US has zero primary refining capacity; 100% net import reliance for germanium.
- ▪Current EU recycling rate ~2%; target 15% by 2030; economically marginal at industrial scale.
Interpretation (non-prescriptive)
- ▪Byproduct supply plus geographic concentration mechanically increases exposure to supply shocks; output responds to zinc/coal dynamics as much as to germanium demand.
- ▪No viable substitute exists for fiber-optic core dopant (<0.2 dB/km loss requirement); IR optics and space solar cells have only partial, lower-performance alternatives.
- ▪Export control volatility (licensing → ban → suspension) signals ongoing geopolitical leverage; supply availability can shift rapidly based on policy changes.
Signals to Watch
China export licensing approval data (weekly volumes)
Direct signal of exportable supply fluidity; >150 tonnes/quarter = normalization; <50 tonnes = effective embargo.
US/EU domestic refining project announcements
E.O. 14241/14285 promised streamlined permitting; ≥2 projects with >10 tonnes/year by end-2026 = meaningful diversification.
Fiber-optic preform manufacturer sourcing shifts
If major manufacturers (Corning, Prysmian) announce non-China GeO₂ sources, signals supply chain restructuring.
Germanium price volatility and contango
Bid-ask spreads >$150/kg or 6-month forward premium >15% = distressed market conditions.
Satellite constellation launch cadences
>5,000 satellite launches for 2026–2030 = potential Ge demand surge of 30+ tonnes/year (6,000–15,000 wafers per satellite).
Recycling infrastructure investment and regulatory mandates
If recycling rates rise from ~2% to >8% by 2028, could offset 10–15 tonnes/year of primary demand.
Related Reading
▸What is Germanium (Ge)?
2 min read
What is Germanium (Ge)?
Germanium (Ge) is the chemical element with atomic number 32. It is a Group 14 (IVa) tetravalent semiconductor metalloid with a silvery-gray crystalline structure and density of 5.32 g/cm³.
In modern industry, germanium matters primarily as an input for fiber-optic dopants (GeO₂), infrared optical components, and high-efficiency multi-junction solar cells for space applications.
Germanium supply is structurally constrained because most primary germanium is recovered as a byproduct of zinc refining (~50%), coal fly ash (~30%), and copper/lead processing (~20%). That means availability depends on host-metal production cycles, not only on germanium demand.
Unlike gallium, germanium has unique infrared transparency (2–16 μm window) that makes it irreplaceable for thermal imaging and night-vision systems in defense applications.
Quick facts
Element name
Germanium
Chemical symbol
Ge
Atomic number
32
Key industrial forms
High-purity Ge metal (ingots/wafers); GeO₂ powder (fiber dopant); GeCl₄ liquid (vapor deposition); single-crystal boules (HPGe detectors).
Primary production model
Byproduct recovery from zinc refining (~50%), coal fly ash (~30%), copper/lead residues (~20%); recycling currently ~2% of supply.
Why it is strategic
Irreplaceable for fiber-optic core dopant and IR thermal imaging; enables >40% efficiency space solar cells; high-purity grades (5N–6N) required for semiconductor/defense use.
Selected Properties
Atomic Mass
72.63
Density
5.32 g/cm³
Melting Point
937.4°C
Boiling Point
2833°C
Discovered
1886 by Clemens Winkler in Freiberg, Germany
Germanium (Ge): Confirmation of Genius
Like gallium, germanium was first predicted. In 1871, Dmitri Mendeleev reserved a box in his table for 'eka‑silicon', describing its properties with uncanny precision. In 1886—eleven years after gallium—German chemist Clemens Winkler isolated the new element from a rare ore, naming it germanium after his country (Germania).
Its discovery, perfectly aligned with Mendeleev's predictions, cemented the credibility of the periodic table. Adopted as the semiconductor of choice in post‑war electronics (before silicon surpassed it), germanium remains vital today for fiber optics, high‑efficiency solar cells and night‑vision systems.
▸Where Germanium is Used
2 min read
Where Germanium is Used
Applications by Sector
Fiber Optics (34.76% of demand)
- ▪GeO₂ dopant in silica cores increases refractive index for efficient long-distance light transmission.
- ▪Typical 6–40 mol% GeO₂ concentration; up to 75–98 mol% for specialty sensing fibers.
- ▪Critical for 5G rollout, submarine cables, data center interconnects.
Semiconductors & RF (20–25% of demand)
- ▪Silicon-Germanium (SiGe) alloys for high-speed transistors, RF amplifiers, 5G infrastructure.
- ▪High-purity germanium (HPGe) detectors for gamma-ray spectroscopy and radiation security.
- ▪Carrier mobility ~2× silicon; used in automotive radar and low-power ICs.
Infrared Optics (18–20% of demand)
- ▪Transparency window 2–16 μm enables thermal imaging (8–14 μm band).
- ▪Military night-vision systems, infrared spectrometers, medical IR diagnostics.
- ▪Single crystals up to 500 mm diameter; polished and coated for optical use.
Photovoltaics (8–12% of demand)
- ▪Multi-junction solar cells with >40% efficiency under concentration.
- ▪Germanium substrate for III-V semiconductors (GaAs, InGaP) in space/satellite applications.
- ▪Each satellite requires 6,000–15,000 germanium wafers.
Alloys & Catalysts (3–5% of demand)
- ▪1% Ge addition to silver prevents tarnishing; improves Al/Mg/Sn hardness.
- ▪GeCl₄ catalyst in PET polymer and polycarbonate synthesis.
Use, Why It Matters, and Constraints
Use
Fiber-optic core dopant (GeO₂)
Why it matters
Enables <0.2 dB/km signal loss—essential for global telecommunications and internet infrastructure.
Constraint
NO viable substitute; 10–15 year switching timeline; $50M–$200M per manufacturer to requalify.
Use
Infrared optics (8–14 μm thermal imaging)
Why it matters
Full-band IR transparency unique to germanium; critical for defense/security thermal imaging.
Constraint
ZnSe only partial substitute (3–12 μm); military re-qualification 5–10 years; ecosystem locked into Ge.
Use
Multi-junction space solar cells
Why it matters
Enables >40% efficiency; germanium substrate for III-V semiconductor stack.
Constraint
Silicon tandem emerging but 8–12 year space qualification; $100M+ per satellite platform redesign.
Use
HPGe gamma-ray detectors
Why it matters
Unmatched spectral resolution (<1 keV); used in nuclear physics, security screening.
Constraint
No direct alternative; scintillators inferior; 10+ year facility recertification cycles.
Use
SiGe RF components
Why it matters
High-frequency performance and low power for 5G and defense electronics.
Constraint
GaN/GaAs partial substitutes; 5–7 year DoD/aerospace qualification; $50M–$200M per redesign.
Common Applications (Examples)
▪Fiber optic systems (GeO₂ dopant)
▪Infrared optics & thermal imaging
▪High-purity gamma-ray detectors (HPGe)
▪Space solar cells (III-V substrates)
▪SiGe RF semiconductors (5G, radar)
▪Night-vision systems
▸Germanium Supply Chain
3 min read
Germanium Supply Chain
At-a-glance briefing: demand concentration (fiber optics dominant), structurally constrained byproduct supply (zinc/coal ash), and extreme geographic concentration (China 80–85% refining).
Processing Stages
01
Primary sources
- ▪Zinc refinery residues (~50%): Byproduct of hydrometallurgical processing; 0.01–0.5% Ge content.
- ▪Coal fly ash (~30%): Combustion residue from Ge-rich lignite (especially China's Yunnan); 50–500 ppm concentration.
- ▪Copper/lead refining (~20%): Emerging secondary source; technical recovery developing.
02
Extraction & recovery
- ▪Hydrometallurgical leaching → Ge enters solution as GeSO₄ or chloride.
- ▪Hydrolysis & precipitation → GeO₂ (hydrous germanium dioxide) filtered.
- ▪Chlorination distillation → GeCl₄ at 84°C → fractional distillation to 6N purity.
03
High-purity refining
- ▪GeCl₄ + H₂ → Ge metal + HCl (at 500–800°C).
- ▪Zone refining for ultra-high purity (6N+); zone-melting under inert gas.
- ▪Overall extraction efficiency: 50–95% depending on feedstock and method.
04
Final product forms
- ▪Ge metal ingots/wafers (4N–6N): Substrates, detectors, optics.
- ▪GeO₂ powder (4N–5N): Fiber preform dopant.
- ▪GeCl₄ liquid (4N–6N): Vapor deposition precursor.
- ▪Single crystals (6N+): HPGe boules via Czochralski or Bridgman methods.
Market Snapshot
Primary Supply
Byproduct of zinc refining (~50%), coal ash (~30%), copper/lead (~20%); China controls 80–85% of global refining capacity; US has zero primary refining.
Demand Trend
Demand driven by fiber optics (34.76%), semiconductors (25%), IR optics (18%), photovoltaics (10%); market CAGR 3.3–5% through 2034; defense/5G/space segments expanding.
Reserves
Reserves concentrated in China (41%) and Russia (10%); supply structurally constrained by byproduct economics; recycling ~2% (EU target 15% by 2030).
Structural Constraints
- ▪Byproduct supply: Output capped by zinc/copper mining and coal combustion cycles—not by germanium demand.
- ▪Geographic concentration: China controls 80–85% of refined capacity; US has zero primary refining.
- ▪Extraction yield limits: 50–95% recovery; SiO₂ encapsulation in coal ash complicates separation.
- ▪High-purity bottleneck: GeCl₄ distillation and zone refining are energy-intensive; tight process windows for <0.01 ppm impurities.
Bottlenecks and Effects
Bottleneck
Byproduct dependency (99%+ supply)
Effect
Output tied to zinc/copper mining and coal-fired electricity cycles; supply volatile and reactive to commodity swings.
Notes
Primary germanium extraction is uneconomical in isolation.
Bottleneck
Geographic concentration (China 80–85% refining)
Effect
Single-point-of-failure risk; 45-day+ export licensing delays; geopolitical leverage.
Notes
US has zero primary refining; value-added processing only (Utah, Oklahoma).
Bottleneck
Extraction yield limits (50–95%)
Effect
Significant waste streams; cost per kg refined Ge high (~$200–500 COGS excl. byproduct credits).
Notes
SiO₂ encapsulation in coal ash adds complexity; variability in zinc residues (0.01–0.5% Ge).
Bottleneck
High-purity refining (5N–6N)
Effect
Long lead times (4–6 months for custom orders); few certified global producers.
Notes
Zone refining energy-intensive; <0.01 ppm impurity requirement for HPGe.
Bottleneck
Recycling immaturity (~2% rate)
Effect
Limited secondary supply buffer; EU target 15% by 2030 requires major infrastructure investment.
Notes
Lab recovery 80–99% demonstrated; industrial scale economically marginal.
Grades, Purity, and Qualification
Purity grades (4N–7N) and applications
- ▪4N (99.99%): Basic optical applications, fiber-optic GeO₂ (if chloride form); impurity limits: Fe/Pb 0.1 ppm, total ≤10 ppm.
- ▪5N (99.999%): General-purpose optics, IR lenses, semiconductor substrates, solar cells; impurity limits: Cu/In/Al 0.01 ppm, total ≤1 ppm.
- ▪6N (99.9999%): High-purity germanium (HPGe) detectors for gamma-ray spectroscopy, nuclear physics, radiation security screening.
- ▪7N+ (99.99999%+): Emerging quantum computing qubits, specialized cryogenic detectors; custom specifications, zone-refined.
Key material forms traded
- ▪Germanium metal (ingots, wafers, shot, powder): Direct use in optoelectronics, solar substrates, high-purity applications.
- ▪Germanium dioxide (GeO₂): Powder/granule; primary dopant precursor for optical fiber; also PET catalyst.
- ▪Germanium tetrachloride (GeCl₄): Volatile liquid for fiber-optic preform vapor deposition; ultra-pure synthesis precursor.
Qualification and substitution constraints
- ▪Fiber-optic dopant: NO viable substitute for <0.2 dB/km loss with 9–40 mol% GeO₂ doping; switching cost $50M–$200M per manufacturer; 10–15 year reengineering timeline.
- ▪IR optics (8–14 μm): No solid-state alternative transmits full band; ZnSe partial substitute (3–12 μm only); military re-qualification burden.
- ▪Space solar cells: Silicon tandem emerging (30–35% vs 40%+ Ge efficiency); 8–12 year qualification timeline; $100M+ per new satellite platform.
- ▪HPGe detectors: No alternative matches sensitivity (<1 keV resolution); scintillators inferior; 10+ year replacement cycles.
5N and 6N grades dominate commercial markets. 4N is typically insufficient for modern fiber-optic dopant applications requiring <0.1 ppm specific impurities. Semiconductor qualification timeline: 18–24 months (including 6–12 weeks reliability testing).
▸Key Policy Events
2 min read
Key Policy Events
Factual timeline of regulatory and policy developments
July 3, 2023
China announces export licensing on germanium and gallium
Ministry of Commerce (MOFCOM) Announcement No. 27: All exports of Ge and Ga require individual license application; classified as 'dual-use items'.
China Ministry of Commerce
August 1, 2023
Export licensing takes effect
Processing time 45 business days; export volumes drop 95%+ in Aug–Sept 2023; market prices rise 27% by Sept 2023.
U.S. Geological SurveyFastmarkets
May 23, 2024
EU Critical Raw Materials Act (CRMA) enters force
Designates 34 'critical' + 17 'strategic' materials; Ge listed 'critical'; sets 2030 targets: 10% domestic extraction, 40% EU processing, 25% recycling.
European Commission
December 3, 2024
China bans Ge exports to United States
MOFCOM Announcement No. 46: De facto embargo; 'in principle, exports not permitted'; exceptions require special case-by-case review.
China Ministry of Commerce
November 9, 2025
China suspends Ge export ban to US
MOFCOM Announcement No. 72: Temporary relief through Nov 27, 2026; licensing framework restored; strategic negotiation signal.
Reuters
2026 (expected)
US domestic refining projects (E.O. 14241, 14285)
Executive Orders target fast-track permitting for critical mineral processing; specific Ge projects not yet announced publicly.
White House
▸Reference Data
Deep dive
Reference Data
Full indicator tables, methodology notes, and sources
Key Indicators (Full Table)
Net import reliance (U.S.)
100%
United States
China refining capacity share
80–85%
Global
Fiber optics demand share
34.76%
Global (largest segment)
Global production
~220 tonnes/year
Global
Price change since export controls
+111–114% ($1,350 → $2,850/kg)
5N purity metal
EU recycling rate
~2% (target: 15% by 2030)
European Union
Theoretical production capacity
~1,250 tonnes/year
Global
Extraction yield range
50–95%
Depending on feedstock/method
Notes: figures are quoted as reported by the cited sources; definitions (e.g. "net import reliance") can vary by methodology.
Frequently Asked Questions
▸What is the germanium element (Ge)?
Germanium is the chemical element with symbol Ge and atomic number 32. It is a metalloid semiconductor with unique infrared transparency (2–16 μm) and semiconductor properties, making it critical for fiber optics, IR optics, and space solar cells.
▸What is germanium used for?
Fiber optics (34.76% of demand): GeO₂ dopant enables low-loss optical transmission. Semiconductors (25%): SiGe RF chips, HPGe detectors. Infrared optics (18%): Thermal imaging, night-vision. Photovoltaics (10%): >40% efficiency space solar cells.
▸Why is germanium supply constrained?
99%+ of germanium is recovered as a byproduct of zinc refining (~50%), coal ash (~30%), and copper/lead processing (~20%). Output is tied to these host industries, not germanium demand. China controls 80–85% of refining capacity; the US has zero primary refining.
▸Can germanium be substituted in fiber optics?
No viable substitute exists for GeO₂ as a fiber-optic core dopant. No alternative achieves <0.2 dB/km loss with required refractive index properties. Substitution timeline if mandated: 10–15 years; cost: $50M–$200M per manufacturer.
▸What purity grades are required for different applications?
4N (99.99%): Basic applications. 5N (99.999%): Optics, semiconductors, solar cells. 6N (99.9999%): HPGe detectors, radiation spectroscopy. 7N+ (99.99999%+): Quantum computing, cryogenic detectors.
▸What are China's export controls on germanium?
August 2023: Export licensing required (45-day approval). December 2024: Complete ban on US exports. November 2025: Temporary suspension through Nov 2026. Prices doubled from ~$1,350 to ~$2,850/kg since controls began.
▸Is germanium a rare earth element?
No. Germanium is not a rare earth element—it is a Group 14 metalloid. However, it is classified as a 'critical raw material' by the EU and listed on the USGS Critical Minerals list due to supply concentration and industrial importance.
▸What is the EU's 2030 target for germanium?
EU CRMA targets for all critical materials: 10% domestic extraction, 40% EU processing, 25% recycling by 2030. Germanium baseline (2024): ~2% extraction, ~5% processing, ~2% recycling. Gaps: 8%, 35%, 23% respectively.
Sources
[MOFCOM-2023]Announcement No. 27 (2023): Export Licensing for Germanium/Gallium — China Ministry of Commerce
[RSC-2025]Harnessing Germanium from Industrial Residues & Electronic Waste — Royal Society of Chemistry
[SPRINGER-2024]Assessing Long-Term Sustainability of Germanium Supply — Mineral Economics (Springer)
[CEPA-2025]China, Gallium and Germanium: The Minerals Inflaming the Global Chip War — Center for European Policy Analysis
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